June 29, 2015

June 29, 2015

Written by Maximus Peperkamp, M.S. Verbal Engineer

Dear Reader, 

There is support for Sound Verbal Behavior (SVB)from the field of evolutionary anthropology. The Affect Induction Theory argues that instead of sending and processing information, which is an anthropomorphic, agential, mentalistic account,  nonhuman primate vocal behavior is about influencing others. 

Today’s writing is a response to “An Affect-Conditioning Model (ACM) of non-human primate vocal signaling” (1997) by Owren and Rendall. “Callers are suggested to use vocalizations to elicit affective responses in others. Responses are either unconditioned being produced directly by the signal itself, or conditioned, resulting from past interactions in which the sender both called and produced affective responses in the receiver through other means.”  This conditioning paradigm, which was discovered by Pavlov, gives a scientific account for why SVB and Noxious Verbal Behavior (NVB) occur. It explains why there is more NVB hierarchical signaling and little SVB, signaling based on ontogenetic instead of phylogenetic development. 

No matter how fancy we get with our language, all of our vocal verbal exchanges are rooted in our evolutionary history and are oftentimes completely impaired by it. "In this view, the social relationship between the sender and the receiver is an important determinant of what sorts of responses can be elicited and hence, which calls are used.” What matters for SVB is that the ACM functionally explains the behavior of the sender. In doing so ACM identifies that the speaker either evokes an appetitive response in the listener with SVB or he or she elicits an aversive response in the listener with NVB. These different responses tell us about dominance and hierarchy. 

“For instance, a sender that is subordinate to, or otherwise has little power over a given receiver also has little opportunity to use its calls as predictors of negative affective responses.” What this means for human interaction is that the SVB speaker doesn’t and can’t threaten the NVB listener. “It therefore relies primarily on vocalizations that have unconditioned effects. We refer to these calls as squeaks, shrieks, and screams, and propose that sounds of this general type should occur in acoustic variable streams – thereby maximizing unconditioned affective responses in the receiver while minimizing habituation effects.” 

We readily habituate to SVB, but not to NVB, because the sounds of the SVB speaker are subtle, sonorant, smooth, connected and rounded, while the sounds of the NVB speaker are harsh, jagged, fractured and coercive. The unconditioned effects of “squeaks, shrieks and screams” in nonverbal organisms are analogous to some of our troublesome songs, poems and stories.

In science nothing can be forced on the reality. In NVB, however, the speaker constantly forces the listener. NVB is inherently  biased. Science requires SVB, which can be verified by everyone, but NVB resists any kind of accountability because the speaker can get away with his or her forcefulness. “If the sender is dominant to the receiver, in contrast, it has ample opportunity to pair threatening calls with negative outcomes and can routinely induce and subsequently elicit conditioned affective responses. Such responses result from experiences in which the sender has produced individually distinctive vocalizations prior to attacking or otherwise frightening another animal. As a given receiver routinely hears many such calls, the identity of the sender is the most important predictor of upcoming events and this animal’s individually distinctive acoustic cues play a primary role in mediating any conditioning that occurs. Vocalizations used as conditioned stimuli must therefore carry salient, discrete cues to individual identity.” Here we have a description of NVB, in which everybody dances to the tune of those who can dominate and aversively control the conversation. 

In SVB, by contrast, such hierarchical differences don’t occur. Moreover, in SVB there is a total absence of aversive stimulation. “We argue that individually distinctive cues based on vocal-tract filtering are best suited for this role, and refer to such sounds as sonants and gruffs. Sonant and gruff calls should also be used by both dominant and subordinate senders in order to elicit positive conditioned responses.” These “sonants and gruffs” are analogous to the languages we speak, that is , in both  SVB and NVB we use language, but in the former our words are evoked, whereas in the latter, they are elicited. Another way of saying this is that in SVB verbal behavior is conditioned operantly, whereas in NVB, verbal behavior is conditioned respondently. 

“Such calls might occur, for instance, when an animal approaches a subordinate individual for grooming and attempts to decrease its fear during the approach. A subordinate animal should pair such calls with grooming or other positive outcomes when interacting with a dominant, thereby being able to elicit positive conditioned responses in that individual on other occasions.” This is a description of NVB as it is obviously a function of different status. The NVB dominant one switches to SVB and the subordinate one is no longer fearful and produces SVB too. However, the hierarchy remains and the dominant one always gets what he or she wants from the subordinate one. If the subordinate one is not giving what the dominant one demands, the dominant one will immediately switch to intimidation and threats and then subordinate gives in or he or she makes a lot NVB noise to distract the dominant one or to put him or her off.

June 28, 2015

June 28, 2015

Written by Maximus Peperkamp, M.S. Verbal Engineer

Dear Reader, 

This is my eight response to “A Rose by Naming: How We May Learn How to Do it” by Greer and Longano (2010). In Verbal Behavior (1957), Skinner writes about the speak-as-own-listener and yet most radical behaviorists are not even interested in having a real conversation in which they as speaker are their own listener. In effect, most behaviorists, just like non-behaviorists, adhere to the rules of Noxious Verbal Behavior (NVB). 

NVB is and needs to be rule-governed, but Sound Verbal Behavior (SVB) is contingency-shaped. How can writing about a speaker make sense if it is not about how the speaker sounds and only about what he or she says? If a speaker speaks, he or she produces a sound and his or her voice is an independent variable which determines the kind of conversation, the dependent variable. What is a listener if writing is not based on what the listener hears, if it excludes the sound which is produced by the speaker? Writing about speaking and listening is meaningless as long as it fails to mention that how a speaker sounds is determined by whether the listener listens or is capable of listening. Speakers don’t determine their sound in the same way they don’t determine their words. The speaker’s sound can only be expressed if the listener is listing or mediating him or her.

A major point in Skinner’s theory is that “verbal observing (listening) and producing (speaking) relations have special functions that set verbal behavior apart, and that is the social mediating function of verbal behavior relative to nonverbal stimuli.” Nonverbal stimuli, by contrast, act directly on the environment, but verbal stimuli act indirectly, because they are mediated by others. “Thus, as one acquires increased verbal correspondence between what is spoken relative to other stimuli observed, one expands one’s options for reinforcement associated with the various motivational conditions or establishing operations that correspond to the use of names” (underlining added). Here the issue of correspondence only seems to refer to what is said, but not to how it is said. 


If a teacher teaches with a high rate of SVB the student will non-verbally corresponds accordingly. However, if the teacher teaches with a high rate of NVB, the student will non-verbally correspond to that coercive way of teaching. These two ways of responding may verbally be the same, but non-verbally they are of course entirely different. Moreover, NVB instruction will inevitably lead to negative self-talk or to private speech. SVB instruction, however, leads to positive self-talk or private speech. 

The authors write “one expands one’s options for reinforcement associated with the various motivational conditions or establishing operations that correspond to the use of names.” One wonders, however, how reinforcing one's negative self-talk can be? Negative private speech inevitably sets the stage for NVB. 

The authors “propose that when the joining of observing and producing responses have verbal ramifications, as in certain verbal categorizations, Naming is the facilitator”, but I want to  add that given the SVB/NVB distinction, we must engage in a case of “Naming”, which applies to adult talking. 


"Derived stimulus relations need not be verbal, as in the case of music, art and dance”, but distance themselves from “emergent relations that are in some way tied to evolved survival functions in nonhuman animals” as the reinforcement of art, music and dance “are not verbal.” They don’t consider the importance of nonverbal reinforcement due to the way in which we sound while we speak. Supposedly, the speaker doesn’t produce any sound and the listener doesn't hear any sound either. 

The authors hesitate, but mention “Perhaps creative performance in the arts or problem solving in nonhuman species involves higher order operant relations or emergent relations that incorporate joining of observing and producing responses such that novel and effective responding results.” One doesn’t need to turn to creative performances as the speaker-as-own-listener creates SVB which gives rise to these  “higher order operant relations that incorporate joining of observing and producing responses such that novel and effective responding results.”

SVB and NVB already existed before I discovered them, but now that we have given a name to these subsets of our vocal verbal behavior, it is clear why there was a “discrepancy in the stimulus equivalence literature in which some emergent behavior involves processes of observing and producing that are not essentially verbal.” There is not enough talking going on, that is, SVB, about these matters, as only academic writing and reading is reinforced. The authors write “Perhaps the contingencies of reinforcement are simply different, as when we discussed the different types of observing and producing responses and the distinction between the reinforcement for each.” Indeed, the contingencies of reinforcement for SVB and NVB are different. 

The stimulus-stimulus pairing involved in “Naming” was called “ostensive learning” by Skinner (1957). He described it as the “pairing of a vocal stimulus (potentially a conditioned reinforcer) with another neutral stimulus, such as an action with an object.” His words indicate that he considered it as superficial learning. He emphasizes this by arguing that “children learn to become effective listeners through Pavlovian-type conditioning processes that set the occasion for the listener to respond to verbal stimuli with conditioned reflexes.” Skinner emphasizes operant behavior, not respondent behavior. 

The teacher who gives NVB instruction elicits behaviors in his or her students. but the teacher who gives SVB instruction evokes new learning responses in his or her students. As “echoics are foundational to the tact speaker function” there is a difference between pairings which occurred with SVB or NVB instruction. 


The authors write “perhaps, both the Pavlovian second order conditioning and the echoic are involved, but at different stages.” No doubt this must be the case. Moreover, Horne and Lowe (1996) suggest that a“the caregiver’s voice and sounds function as classically conditioned stimuli that have strong reinforcing effects on the child, so that when the child hear his or her own voice in the echoic, these sounds have reinforcing properties similar to those of the parents”. If the child was instructed by an abusive NVB caregiver, he or she will not be able to hear his own voice when he or she echoes what the parent is saying. He or she will echo the caregiver’s negative-sounding voice, which doesn’t allow him or her to hear his or her own relaxed positive-sounding voice. We can only hear our own voice during SVB, so only when the child gets SVB instruction, will it be able to hear his or her own voice. If the parents weren’t reinforcing the child with their instruction in the first place, the child will not be able to reinforce him or herself and consequently, as is always the case in NVB, he or she will demand from others that they reinforce him or her. Thus, the NVB the speaker aversively and coercively stimulates the listener and deamands to have his or her way.

The “correspondence between what has been heard and what is said serves as a conditioned reinforcer, and in typically developing children this occurs very early.” It should be clear here that this correspondence will only happen if the mother is healthy and happy and not depressed, fearful or stressed. In the former,  mothers would produce SVB, but in the latter they would produce NVB. During NVB, out of fear, stress, anxiety or frustration, we fake  correspondence between what is heard and what is said and such obedient responses are not emitted, but they are elicited. 

“In a study on very early development, Decasper and Spence (1987) reported that newborn children emitted auditory observing responses to their mother’s voices and not to other voices, suggesting that in utero conditioning of mother’s voices was responsible.” This also demonstrates that it must be SVB instruction rooted in love, support, care, protection and joy, rather than NVB instruction due to depression, impatience, despair, fear or frustration. “It does seem feasible that Pavlovian second-order conditioned reinforcement for the stimuli involved in the observation experience for Naming may be responsible for the prerequisite conditioning of the echoic as a reinforcer.” Certainly, without such conditioned reinforcement developmental cusps will be missed. If we are raised properly, with love and care, we learn SVB, but if we are neglected or abandoned, we will learn NVB.  

Parroting is not verbal, but “duplicating the sounds can initially reinforce speech sounds or singing, and hearing the sounds by speaker-as-own-listener results in automatic reinforcement.” And “Attending to the observed response that one [as a baby] produces results in within-the-skin listener reinforcement, perhaps because the correspondence between hearing and saying is already a conditioned reinforcer.”   

When we learn about SVB, that is, when we listen to ourselves while we speak, like nonverbal children, we first need to hear our own sound, without having to be concerned about what we say. When we hear whether we have SVB or NVB, we have mastered “Naming” the two subsets of vocal verbal behavior.  This will exponentially increase our chances for positive reinforcement, because being able to “Name” SVB and NVB, will allow us to have SVB and to prevent NVB. Also we can practice SVB on our own as speaker-as-own-listener and SVB will be automatically reinforcing to us. NVB doesn’t need to be learned, it only needs to be recognized and prevented. Extinguishing NVB is done by avoiding and escaping from the environments with people who maintain it. Only when another person as listener mediates our SVB as a speaker, will our SVB be reinforced and strengthened. 

June 27, 2015

June 27, 2015

Written by Maximus Peperkamp, M.S. Verbal Engineer

Dear Reader, 

This is my seventh response to “A Rose by Naming: How We May Learn How to Do it” by Greer and Longano (2010). Reading this paper makes clear to me that learning about the distinction between Sound Verbal Behavior (SVB) and Noxious Verbal Behavior (NVB) is exactly the same as how autistic children are taught about language. All the science is there, but now it needs to be applied to the so-called normal people. 

Yesterday, I was reading another paper “What is wrong with daily life in the Western world?” (1986), in which Skinner writes “Contingencies of reinforcement are an important field in the experimental analysis of behavior, and what is wrong with daily life in the West is precisely the field of Applied Behavioral Analysis” (underlinging added). What is wrong is our way of talking. This wrong way of talking in which our behavior is under control of contingencies of punishment rather than of contingencies of reinforcement is NVB. Skinner writes “We see, hear and taste things in the world around us, and we feel things with our bodies.” This is also the case while we talk. I disagree with his statement “The sense organs with which we feel are not as easily observed as those with which we see things in the world around us.” It only seems that way as our orientation is outward due to our NVB. In SVB we change our outward orientation as we listen to ourselves while we speak. When we do that, we are able to observe the world around and within us. Inward orientation – while speaking – includes outward orientation, but outward orientation – while speaking – excludes inward orientation. 

In NVB, in which we don’t listen to ourselves, there is no inward orientation and there cannot be. When Skinner writes “And we cannot report what we feel as accurately as what we see, because those who teach us to do so lack information about the body we feel”, he is basically saying that he has difficulty talking about his feelings. This is a typical feature of NVB. As he recognizes the influence of American culture with which lots of things are wrong, he correctly views the weakness of not being able “to report what we feel as accurately as what we see”, as a verbal behavior that is caused by our environment. Since others, “who teach us”, are our environment, but “lack information about the body we feel”, we can only report what we feel in our own body ourselves. This is what the speaker-as-own-listener does and by doing so he or she will find SVB. Skinner asks “What is felt when we are not enjoying our lives?”, but I am interested in the question of what is felt when we are not enjoying our own way of talking or someone else’s way of talking? Since we are simultaneously the speaker and the listener, we find that listening to ourselves while we speak couldn’t happen because the contingencies maintained only our dominant way of talking: NVB.  

Although Skinner is aware that “The human species took a unique evolutionary step when its vocal musculature came under operant control and language was born”, he doesn’t understand that “What is to be changed if we are to feel differently” is our way of talking; not what we say, but how we say it.  Skinner thinks it is only what we say that determines that “much of the strengthening effect of the consequences of behavior has been lost.” He emphasizes “The association of reinforcement with feeling is so strong that it has been said that things reinforce because they feel good or feel good because they reinforce” and he points out the great difference between the “pleasing effect of reinforcement” versus the “strengthening effect.” 

As the discoverer of SVB, however, I tell you with certainty that our fixation on words, in addition to the previously mentioned outward orientation, causes and maintains our NVB. Thus “The evolution of cultural practices has miscarried” and “the erosion of the contingencies of reinforcement” happened as we keep talking ourselves deeper into this mess. NVB erodes the strengthening effect of the consequences of our vocal verbal behavior, but SVB stimulates the strengthening effects of the consequences of our vocal verbal behavior.  Although “we have moved toward a way of life that is free from all kinds of unpleasant things”, we have created more and more NVB and less and less SVB.

There were only a couple of things I still wanted to write about Greer and Longano’s paper, but I got side-tracked by Skinner's paper and now want to respond to that. I am intrigued by his remark that in the West we have gone so far in freeing ourselves from aversive conditions that “As a result, there is very little left to escape from or act to prevent. The strengthening consequences in negative reinforcement that we enjoy as relief have been lost. We are suffering from what might be called libertas nervosa.” 

When people discover SVB their reaction is always two-fold: on the one hand, they are relieved it is still possible, but on the other hand, they realize that SVB is against the current culture. It is this dual aspect which strengthened my desire to investigate it. 

Interestingly, Skinner recognizes that “The strengthening effect of reinforcement is eroded when people do things only because they have been told to do them” (underlinging added). NVB goes right along with the “expansion” of “rule-governed behavior.” The consequences that follow when you don’t do what someone tells you to do or what you are supposed to do, are always negative. In NVB people do what someone else tells them to do or what they are supposed to do, as they will otherwise be punished. They engage in NVB to escape from punishment and their behavior is thus negatively reinforced. However, SVB is more than the escape from NVB, as in SVB the speaker controls the behavior of the listener with an appetitive contingency.  

In our talking we experience the immediate positive or negative consequences that strengthen or weaken our behavior. “Formal education is largely a kind of advice, but little of the behavior shaped and maintained in the class room is ever subsequently reinforced in daily life.” It is not reinforced because we have NVB without even knowing it. If it is true that SVB happens more often in the class room than in daily life, we must try to arrange daily life more like a class room, that is, if we want to have SVB in our daily life. When SVB is reinforced in daily life, we will be more open to “scientific advice” of which “the consequences are often long deferred.” Although “the gains are great” because of our NVB “the strengthening effect is often missing.” 

The rules and laws which “enable people to please and avoid displeasing others without submitting to possibly punitive consequences and to respond in appropriate ways when pleased or displeased” have entrenched us in NVB due to which “reinforcing consequences are further eroded.” NVB, just like “the laws of governments and religions are maintained primarily for the sake of the institutions.”  SVB will create a totally different order in society. Although “security or peace of mind” resulted from cultural practices, “following of ethical rules or obeying the laws of government or religion” led to “personal strengthening consequences” which didn't and couldn't improve relationships.  

NVB is often justified as it promises that we will eventually have SVB, but this is not true. The important question which needs to be asked, talked about and agreed upon is: what kind of behavior is reinforced? In  pursuit of “things we call interesting, beautiful, delicious, entertaining and exciting”, our culturally celebrated approach behaviors are reinforced, while our need for avoidance behaviors – which make escape behaviors no longer necessary – are ignored. As avoidance behaviors are central to our stability and well-being and only properly working avoidance behaviors can decrease our need for escape behavior, “What is wrong with life in the West is not that is has too many reinforcers, but that they are not contingent on the kinds of behavior that sustain the individual or promote the survival of the culture or species.” 

Our Western infatuation with and overemphasis of approach behavior goes hand in hand with an increase of escape behavior and a decrease of avoidance behavior, and, of course, an increase of NVB. Many escape behaviors should be considered as failed attempts at avoidance behavior. While avoidance behaviors are not reinforced and while escape behaviors are reinforced, there is no reinforcement for SVB, which is based on avoidance behavior. 

In SVB our escape behaviors are kept at a minimum, avoidance behaviors (of aversive stimulation) are kept at a maximum and approach behaviors are only reinforced to the extent that they don’t result in having to escape from what was approached. All of this is accomplished by SVB. NVB reinforces excess approach behavior and escape behavior, but punishes avoidance behavior.  

Skinner was unaware of the SVB/NVB distinction. “Where thousands of millions of people in other parts of the world cannot do many of the things they want to do, hundreds of millions in the West do not want to do many of the things they can do. In winning the struggle for freedom and the pursuit for happiness, the West has lost his inclination to act” (underlining added). 

Struggle in any way, shape or form, in addition to the already mentioned outward orientation and verbal fixation, always sets the stage for NVB. Surely, the West is the biggest proponent of NVB. Skinner wonders “there seems to be no word, metaphorical or otherwise, for strength itself.” He writes “it is possible that a word is lacking because behavior is often regarded as a mere sign or symptom.” He is concerned with terms as “will”, “compassion” or “libido”, which “are said to happen in the inner world of feelings and states of mind.” However, he doesn’t write or speak about SVB, the way of talking that improves “the strengthening contingencies of behavior.” When we are reinforced for our first SVB response, “we bring a new operant into existence.”

June 26, 2015

June 26, 2015

Written by Maximus Peperkamp, M.S. Verbal Engineer

Dear Reader, 

This is my sixth response to “A Rose by Naming: How We May Learn How to Do it” by Greer and Longano (2010). When I reread what I wrote yesterday I was surprised how pleased I was. I had thought yesterday’s writing was too chaotic, but when I reread it  it made perfectly sense and I am glad I wrote it the way I did. In recent times, I have also had more moments in which I was glad I said things the way I did and did things in the way I did. 

While reading a paper it is a matter of taking from it only what I can use. “The emergence of Naming from intensive tact instruction appears to be a function of the implicit rotation of speaker and listener opportunities found in the intensive tact instruction, but further analysis is needed.” It sure it is! I think these researchers are on the right track. They address the need for explicit rotation and think that “the process of learning tacts involves the children echoing the tacts initially, because they must learn to say or echo the word in the process of learning the tact, until the child emits the tact without echoic instruction” (underlining added). However, if instruction is given in Noxious Verbal Behavior (NVB), the child will echo the words in a NVB manner, but if the instruction was given in Sound Verbal Behavior (SVB), the child will echo the words in a SVB way. 

The words which are echoed in NVB are often elicited, while the words which are echoed in SVB are mostly emitted. Our different ways of talking didn’t come about magically, but were learned due to threatening or safe environmental events. Moreover, the author’s emphasis on echoing, on saying words out loud, paves the way for the joining of the listening and speaking repertoires.


The authors write precisely how this can come about: “As the children received stimulus-stimulus pairings they began to echo, suggesting that the procedure facilitated echoics that in turn resulted in automatic reinforcement.” Thus, on both sides of the talking spectrum, people with more SVB as well as those with more NVB are automatically reinforced for their SVB or NVB. However, only in SVB speaking and listening repertoires are going to be joined, but in NVB speaking and listening become more and more separate. This concurs with “Stemmer’s proposal that Naming emerged from a history of second-order classical conditioning (Stemmer, 1973, 1990, 1994, 1996). 

Teachers of children with language delay probably already do this, because they support language development, but it must be SVB instruction, not NVB instruction. “If children are missing the echoic as a conditioned reinforcer, then stimulus-stimulus pairing experiences may provide the necessary prerequisite.” NVB instructions are going to be ineffective and harmful. It is quite likely that our high rates of NVB cause language deficits. 

What now follows is my paraphrasing of a presentation “Introduction to Verbal Behavior” by Tracy Vail, which can be googled on internet. By looking closely at behavior of autistic children, behavior analysts identified the cycle that perpetuates aberrant behavior: absence of alternative behaviors leads to an increase of stereotypy, which impairs learning and in turn results in fewer acquired new skills. Normal people can learn from the treatment of autistic children. How do these children learn to talk? This is accomplished by increasing motivating operations (MO). This is not done by making them fearful, by punishing or by coercing them, but by reinforcing them. 


If they are still nonverbal, we have to start with the nonverbal and then move slowly to the verbal. It is important to take note of how the child responds to the environment, to the analyst and to prevent aversive stimulation. By being playful with the child the MO for verbal behavior is established. If the child begins to anticipate what is going to happen next, doing something unexpected can bring more enjoyment. As the play progresses routines can be created, which also can be gradually changed over time. The analyst must maintain his or her connection with the child and must be sensitive. Moreover, he or she must pair his or her talking with the reinforcement. His or her way of talking must be reinforcing to the child. This is exactly how SVB works! 

In SVB the speaker is the reinforcer. The speaker in SVB does exactly what the behavior analyst does to the autistic child: he or she teaches errorless, fades demands, teaches to fluency, prompts quickly, fades the prompts, makes sure all questions are answered, finds numerous reinforcers, corrects errors and has fun. The behavior analyst wouldn’t gain any ground with the autistic child if he or she would follow negative behavior with reinforcement; remove the child from a reinforcing activity to begin teaching; give directions to do things which he or she couldn’t prompt; give directions without getting compliance; and, kill reinforcers by placing too many demands. This exactly describes NVB! In NVB the speaker is the punisher.

In NVB the speaker controls the behavior of the listener with and aversive contingency. It works the same for autistic children as for normal people. Teaching language skills to autistic children informs us about our adult way of communicating, which is mostly aversive and which is therefore problematic. Moreover, the key to successful language teaching is to pair sounds and to make talking fun. Specifically therapists must be pairing their sounds with fun. In SVB we listen to ourselves while we speak and we find out that we are having fun while we are talking and that talking is both interesting and reinforcing. All the positive experiences of the speaker-as-own-listener reinforce our SVB. 

If NVB is produced by a parent, the child will imitate this sound and unconsciously identify it for what it is. Regardless of what sound is produced by the speaker, all sounds are analyzed. Soon the child-listener, who becomes a speaker, will be able to recognize SVB and NVB. SVB is learned as it is reinforcing, but NVB will give rise to stereotypy in autistic children. Stereotypy are a form of counter-control. These stereotypy must be replaced by SVB. Even if a mistake is made something new is learned. Making mistakes is needed to recognize NVB as NVB as SVB as SVB, and the better a person gets at recognizing NVB as NVB, the better he or she gets at recognizing SVB as SVB. 

One becomes the stepping stone for the other. Unless we recognize NVB as NVB we cannot move to SVB. Similarly, the autistic child at some point recognizes that there is reinforcement available in the verbal realm, which wasn’t available in the nonverbal realm. NVB keeps us trapped in nonverbal behavior, in negative feelings of being threatened, intimidated, coerced, attacked, mistrusted, isolated, abandoned and dismissed. 

Even if we produce NVB, the vocal attempt must be reinforced, because it is better than no attempt at all. Every step of the way needs to be shaped. Once errors have been corrected then more reinforcement will follow. As this is done with positive feelings, it reminds us and will be linked to all favorite activities which we find reinforcing. Learning starts with NVB, which is more nonverbal, but during SVB we become fully verbal. Teaching a new behavior can only built on behavior that is already there.  

 

Old NVB, which happened under threatening circumstances, is likely to be repeated even under circumstances in which there is environmental support. Under new positive SVB circumstances  old NVB will be highlighted and recognized. The prompts that enable the speaker to switch from NVB to SVB are gradually faded once the speaker is able to continue with SVB. As in teaching language skills to autistic children, new learning is built on old learning and SVB is built on NVB. When each instance of NVB is corrected there will be errorless learning. 

If the speaker produces NVB it needs to be simply stated that this is an incorrect response. The teacher must of course be able to produce SVB as a discriminative stimulus for the student. He or she demonstrates SVB and models what the student would sound like if he or she would have SVB. The student hears in the teacher what  he or she would sound like if he or she produced the correct response. The student echoes what the teacher just said. 

Repetition of the discriminative stimulus, called Voice II, the voice which produces SVB, gives the student the opportunity to echo back the sound which was produced by the teacher. If done correctly, the teacher acknowledges this and when the student experiences the reinforcing effects of his or her own SVB, he or she realizes that by manding or asking, people will do things for him or her; by tacting or naming, he or she can label things in the environment under a variety of conditions; by listening, he or she can follow directions and do what others tell him or her to do; by imitation and by echoics, he or she can do or say what others do or say; by having intraverbals, he or she will know that what he or she says is dependent on what others say or have said, but is not the same. 

Teaching SVB deals with the fact that in NVB even verbally skilled people remain stuck with nonverbal discomfort. The voice that produces NVB is called Voice I as it must be discriminated before we can switch to Voice II, the voice of SVB. Since we can’t produce these two voices simultaneously, we can only produce one or the other successively. Although the switching between Voice I and II can happen rapidly, this will decrease once the speaker experiences Voice II as reinforcing and Voice I as punishing. 

In dysfunctional environments in which SVB was punished and NVB was reinforced, the child has repeatedly echoed NVB and is automatically reinforced by his or her NVB private speech. SVB leads to intraverbal revelations; the adult speaker recognizes that his or her negative self- talk or NVB private speech, was produced by NVB public speech. By learning about SVB, he or she knows that positive self-talk or SVB private speech can only come from SVB public speech. SVB will transform a person’s sense of self, in which he or she sees him or herself as a product of how others are and have been talking with or at him or her. As listening to ourselves and others becomes important, our sense of self becomes more fluid and flexible as it always reflects our environment.